{"id":30998,"date":"2015-08-08T12:13:14","date_gmt":"2015-08-08T10:13:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/rinconeducativo.org\/recursos-educativos\/centrales-electricas\/"},"modified":"2024-12-18T14:29:36","modified_gmt":"2024-12-18T13:29:36","slug":"power-plants","status":"publish","type":"re_recurso","link":"https:\/\/rinconeducativo.org\/en\/recursos-educativos\/power-plants\/","title":{"rendered":"Power plants"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

What is a power plant?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

A power plant is a facility capable of converting mechanical energy, obtained through other primary energy sources, into electrical energy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In general, mechanical energy comes from the transformation of the potential energy of the water stored in a reservoir; of the thermal energy supplied to water through the combustion of coal, natural gas, or fuel oil, or through the fission energy of uranium.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

To convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, machines called generators are used, which consist of two fundamental parts: the stator and the rotor. The first of them is a metal armor covered on the inside by copper wires, which form various circuits. The second, the rotor, located inside the stator, is formed in its inner part by an axis, and in its outer part by some circuits, which transform into electromagnets when a small amount of current is applied to them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

When the rotor rotates at high speed, due to the applied mechanical energy, currents are produced in the copper wires inside the stator. These currents provide the generator with the so-called electromotive force, capable of providing electrical energy to any system connected to it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This generated electrical energy is sent through a network of power lines to the places of consumption. At the output of the power plant, the voltage is 110 kV, 220 kV, or 380 kV; That is, a high voltage is obtained through a transformer so that transport losses are minimal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Then, at the points of consumption, it is transformed again, through other transformers, to the known low voltages of 380 V, 220 V, or 125 V, which are the ones we usually use in our equipment and appliances.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

What is a hydroelectric plant?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

A hydroelectric power plant is one in which the potential energy of the water stored in a reservoir is transformed into the kinetic energy necessary to move the rotor of a generator and, subsequently, transformed into electrical energy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Hydroelectric plants are built in river beds, creating a reservoir to retain water. To do this, a thick wall of stone, concrete, or other materials is built, generally supported on a mountain. The mass of dammed water is led through a pipe to the blades of a turbine that is usually at the foot of the dam, which is connected to the generator. Thus, the water transforms its potential energy into kinetic energy, which moves the turbine blades.<\/p>\n\n\n

\n
\"\"<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

A power plant does not store energy, but production follows the demand requested by users. As this demand is variable throughout the day and with the time of year, power plants can operate with variable output. However, efficiency increases if production is constant; For this, there is a way to store the energy produced in hours of low consumption and use it in times of strong demand, through hydraulic pumping plants. These plants have two reservoirs located at different elevations. The water stored in the upper reservoir produces electricity by falling on the turbine, as indicated before, covering the hours of strong demand. The water subsequently reaches the lower reservoir, at which time it is used to pump the water from the lower reservoir to the upper one, using the turbine as a motor, if it were reversible, or the alternator.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

What is a non-nuclear power plant?<\/h3>\n\n\n
\n
\"\"<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n

A thermal power plant for the production of electrical energy is an installation where the mechanical energy needed to move the rotor of the generator, and therefore obtain electrical energy, is obtained from the steam formed when boiling water in a boiler.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The steam generated has a high pressure and is sent to the turbines so that when it expands it is capable of moving their blades.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The types of non-nuclear thermal plants are: coal, fuel, or natural gas. In these plants, the energy from the combustion of coal, fuel oil, or natural gas is used to transform water into steam.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

A non-nuclear thermal power plant is made up of a boiler and a turbine that drives the electric generator. The boiler is the fundamental element, and the combustion of coal, fuel, or gas takes place in it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

What's a nuclear center?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

A nuclear power plant is a thermal power plant in which a nuclear reactor acts as a boiler. Thermal energy originates from nuclear fission reactions in nuclear fuel formed by a uranium compound.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The nuclear fuel is located inside a hermetically sealed container. The heat generated in the reactor fuel and then transmitted to a coolant is used to produce water vapor, which goes to the turbine, transforming its energy into electrical energy in the alternator.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

What is a nuclear reactor and what elements constitute it?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

A nuclear reactor is a facility capable of initiating, maintaining, and controlling fission chain reactions, with the appropriate means to extract the heat generated. A nuclear reactor consists of several elements, each playing an important role in generating heat. These elements are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \n
  • The fuel, formed by a fissile material, is generally a uranium compound, in which the fission reactions take place, and therefore is the source of heat generation.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  • The moderator, slows down the speed of fast neutrons, bringing them to slow or thermal neutrons. This element does not exist in so-called fast reactors. Water, graphite, and heavy water are used as moderating materials.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  • The coolant extracts the heat generated by the reactor fuel. Generally, liquid refrigerants are used, such as light water and heavy water, or gases such as carbon dioxide and helium.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  • The reflector reduces the escape of neutrons from the fuel area, and therefore has more neutrons for the chain reaction. The materials used as reflectors are water, graphite, and heavy water.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  • The control elements, which act as neutron absorbers, allow the neutron population to be controlled at all times, and therefore, the reactivity of the reactor, making it critical during operation, and subcritical during shutdowns. The control elements are in the form of bars, although they can also be found diluted in the coolant.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  • The shielding prevents the escape of gamma radiation and neutrons from the reactor. The materials used as shielding are concrete, water, and lead.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

    What types of nuclear reactors are used in nuclear power plants?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

    Nuclear reactors are classified, according to the speed of the neutrons produced by fission reactions, into fast reactors and thermal reactors. Therefore, existing nuclear power plants will have either a fast reactor or a thermal reactor.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In turn, thermal reactors are classified, according to the type of moderator used, into light water reactors, heavy water reactors, and graphite reactors. The type of fuel used, as well as the coolant used, is generally associated with each of these reactors.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The reactors most used in nuclear power plants are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \n
    • Pressurized water reactor (PWR), which uses light water as a moderator and coolant; and enriched uranium oxide as fuel. The coolant circulates at such a pressure that the water does not reach boiling, and extracts heat from the reactor, which then leads to a heat exchanger, where the steam that feeds the turbine is generated.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    • A boiling water reactor (BWR), which uses elements similar to the previous one, but now the coolant, working at lower pressure, reaches the boiling temperature when passing through the core of the reactor, and part of the liquid is transformed into vapor, the which, once separated from it and its moisture content reduced, is conveyed to the turbine without the need to use the steam generator.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    • Heavy water reactor (HWR), which uses heavy water as a moderator. There are versions in which the coolant is pressurized heavy water or boiling light water. It can use natural or slightly enriched uranium as fuel.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    • Graphite-gas reactor. These types of reactors use graphite as a moderator and CO2 as a coolant. While the first reactors of this type used natural uranium in metallic form, the current so-called advanced gas reactors (AGR) use enriched uranium oxide; and the so-called high-temperature reactors (HTGR), use helium as a coolant.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    • Graphite-moderated boiling water reactor (RBMK), developed in the Soviet Union, consists of a graphite-moderated reactor, with enriched uranium, and cooled by boiling water. This type of reactor has not been used in Western Europe.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

      What is a fast reactor?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      In this type of reactor, there is no moderating element for neutrons and, therefore, the neutron flux falls in the fast neutron zone. The fuel in the central zone, formed by a mixed oxide of uranium and plutonium, is surrounded by a zone of highly depleted uranium oxide, with a uranium-235 content less than or equal to that of natural uranium and rich in uranium-238.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      With this arrangement, and using a high-density, low-affinity coolant for neutron capture (normally sodium is used), it can be achieved that more plutonium is generated in the U-238 layer surrounding the fuel than is consumed. In this way, at the same time that thermal energy is being generated, fuel is being produced in the form of Pu-239, which can be used in any type of reactor, both fast and thermal. These types of reactors are also known as breeder reactors, and their importance is enormous since they allow for better use of existing uranium resources.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Until now, there are very few countries that have nuclear power plants with this type of reactor. Firstly, France with the 1,200 MWe Superphenix that operated until 1998, has been the largest plant of these characteristics. It is followed by the former Soviet Union and India, which have low and medium-power reactors in operation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      What type of reactors are used in Spanish nuclear power plants?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      In the period between 1965 and 1973, the design, construction, and commissioning of three plants, called first generation, was carried out, each one with a different technology. These plants were Jos\u00e9 Cabrera (a pressurized light water reactor, PWR), Santa Mar\u00eda de Garo\u00f1a (a boiling light water reactor, BWR), and Vandell\u00f3s (a graphite reactor cooled by carbon dioxide).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      In 1972, new plants were contracted, which were put into operation throughout the 1980s. These are Almaraz (two pressurized light water type reactors), Asc\u00f3 (two units of the same type as the previous ones), and Cofrentes (a boiling light water reactor). Subsequently, the Vandell\u00f3s-ll plants were put into operation. (a pressurized light water reactor) and Trillo (a pressurized light water reactor).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      In Spain, the technology adopted in the reactors of Spanish nuclear power plants is of the light water type, of Western design. Only one plant had graphite reactor technology.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      What is a nuclear fusion reactor?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      A fusion reactor is a facility in which nuclear fusion reactions take place in a fuel made up of hydrogen isotopes (deuterium and tritium), releasing energy in the form of heat, and then transforming it into electrical energy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Currently, there is no fusion reactor that allows obtaining electrical energy, although there are research facilities in which fusion reactions are studied, as well as the technology that will be used in these plants in the future.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      Nuclear fusion reactors will, in the future, be of two types: those that use magnetic confinement, and those that use inertial confinement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      A magnetic confinement fusion reactor is made up of:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        \n
      • A reaction chamber, limited by a metal wall.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      • A material cover made up of lithium, serves both to extract heat from the metal wall and for the production of tritium, assuming that the fuel in the reaction chamber is deuterium-tritium.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      • Some large coils to generate the magnetic field.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      • Protection against radiation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

        An inertial confinement fusion reactor will be made up of:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \n
        • A smaller reaction chamber than the previous one, also limited by a metal wall.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • A lithium cover.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • Some penetrations facilitate the passage of light from a laser or particles from an ion beam.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • Protection against radiation.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

          \"Centrales<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          What is a solar power plant?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          It is that installation in which solar radiation is used to produce electrical energy. This process can be carried out by using a photothermal process or a photovoltaic process.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          In solar power plants that use the photothermal process, the heat from solar radiation heats a fluid and produces steam that is directed toward the turbine, subsequently producing electrical energy. The process of capturing and concentrating solar radiation is carried out in devices called heliostats, which act automatically to follow the variation in the orientation of the Sun with respect to the Earth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          There are various types of thermal solar power plants, but the most common are the tower type, with a large number of heliostats. For a typical plant of only 10 MWe, the surface occupied by the heliostats is 20 Ha.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Solar power plants that use the photovoltaic process cause solar radiation to hit the surface of a semiconductor crystal, called a solar cell, and directly produce an electric current through the photovoltaic effect. These types of plants are being installed in countries where the transport of electrical energy must be carried out from a long distance, and until now their use is basically for lighting and some domestic applications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          What is a wind power plant?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          It is an installation where the kinetic energy of the wind can be transformed into mechanical rotation energy. To do this, a tower is installed, at the top of which there is a rotor with multiple blades, oriented in the direction of the wind. The blades or propellers rotate around a horizontal axis that acts on an electricity generator.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Although approximately 1% of the solar energy that the Earth receives is transformed into atmospheric movement, this energy is not distributed uniformly, which limits its use.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          There are also technological limitations to reach powers greater than one megawatt, which means that its usefulness is very restricted, firstly, due to the area of \u200b\u200bstrong winds and, secondly, due to its unitary power. Furthermore, the number of hours that a wind power plant is available to produce electrical energy is very low when compared to those of thermal and nuclear power plants.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          What life do power plants have?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          The life of power plants depends on several factors. The most important is linked to the individual life of those components that have the greatest importance and investment cost. In general, this term is attributed to the boiler in the case of thermoelectric plants, and to the reservoir in hydroelectric plants.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          The estimated life of these components, and therefore of the plant, is about thirty years on average for thermal plants, and slightly more for hydraulic plants.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Another factor that limits the life of a power plant is the technological profitability of a plant after several years of operation. To have plants that are current at all times, it is necessary to carry out a process of periodic inspections to check the condition of the most important components.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          In this sense, the concept of life extension has been launched in the nuclear industry, which through systematic and properly carried out maintenance will allow nuclear power plants to operate for about twenty years longer than the life expected until now. This plan has also been transferred to coal-fired thermoelectric plants.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          What is an accelerator-assisted nuclear reactor?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          In recent years, accelerators have been developed that allow high currents of high-energy protons to be obtained. In this way, it is possible to obtain currents of a few mA with protons of up to several GeV that, when interacting with a heavy material, such as lead, produce neutrons through spallation reactions. During the 1980s, several projects were started, such as the ATW in the United States, and OMEGA in Japan, in order to obtain high neutron fluxes, higher than those currently obtained in thermal and fast reactors. The objective of these projects is to produce electrical energy and transmute high-level waste.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Currently, the most developed works are those of the United States, Japan, France, and the European Union, highlighting the concept of an energy amplifier proposed by Nobel Prize winner Carlo Rubbia which, at this time, can be considered the prototype from which they are derived. the rest of the designs. This concept, in addition to its use as a transmuter, allows the production of energy, using the thorium and lead cycle as a refrigerant.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          Any of the aforementioned concepts consists of two fundamental elements:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            \n
          • A proton accelerator.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
          • A subcritical burner system formed by thorium that uses the neutron flux from the spallation reactions coming from the accelerator.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

            What are advanced reactors?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

            Advanced reactors are characterized by a new design that is based on the concepts of plants currently in operation. That is to say, proven components are incorporated, with high reliability, an optimal redundant and diversified structure is designed, with which it is not necessary to design a previous prototype and significant economic savings are produced, in addition to reducing the time for licensing and the beginning of the construction of the first units. They are also called evolutionary because they are an evolution of the reactors in operation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            The group of advanced reactors also includes passive reactors, which incorporate innovations related to safety systems based on natural circulation for cooling and gravity for emergency cooling systems. This concept is characterized by its lower complexity, which makes it easier to handle, and because it further reduces possible human error.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            At present, there are the following advanced reactor concepts, some of which have already been built and are in operation, while others are under construction in Pacific countries:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              \n
            • ABWR (Advanced Boiling Water Reactor). Evolutionary BWR reactor designed by General Electric, with 1350 MWe power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
            • System 80+. Evolutionary PWR reactor designed by Combustion Engineering, with 1350 MWe power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
            • AP600. Passive PWR reactor designed by Westinghouse, 600 Mwe of power.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
            • SBWR (Simplified Boiling Water Reactor). Passive BWR reactor of General Electric design of 600 MWe.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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