{"id":23958,"date":"2015-08-08T13:26:59","date_gmt":"2015-08-08T11:26:59","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/rinconeducativo.org\/recursos-educativos\/nociones-basicas-de-fisica-nuclear\/"},"modified":"2024-12-18T14:29:24","modified_gmt":"2024-12-18T13:29:24","slug":"basic-notions-nuclear-physics","status":"publish","type":"re_recurso","link":"https:\/\/rinconeducativo.org\/en\/recursos-educativos\/basic-notions-nuclear-physics\/","title":{"rendered":"Basic notions of nuclear physics"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
What is an atom?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The atomic-molecular theory was established in the early 19th century; Dalton, Avogadro and Proust were its main architects. According to her, matter is discontinuous, in such a way that the smallest portion that can be obtained from a body is a molecule. Molecules, in turn, can be divided into smaller entities called atoms; the molecules of simple bodies are formed by atoms equal to each other, while the molecules of compound bodies are formed by atoms of two or more kinds. He also affirmed this theory, that atoms were indivisible, to which his name alludes (\"atoms\" means \"indivisible\", in Greek), and that all atoms of the same element were equal. Therefore, we can define an atom as \u201cthe smallest and electrically neutral part of which a chemical element is composed and that can intervene in chemical reactions without losing its integrity\u201d. Today more than 107 different chemical elements are known, some of which do not exist in nature and have been obtained artificially.<\/p>\n\n\n
\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n
A series of discoveries that took place in the last third of the last century and the first third of the present forced a review of this atomic theory: Mendeleev's Periodic Law, the theories on ionization and radioactivity gave rise to, first, Rutherford and, then, Bohr and Heisenberg, established the atomic model in force today.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
According to this model, the atom is not indivisible but is made up of smaller entities, called elementary particles. In the atom two parts can be considered: a central or atomic nucleus formed by protons and neutrons, and an external part or shell, formed by electrons (there are as many electrons in the shell as protons in the nucleus, so the atom is electrically neutral), which revolve around the nucleus similar to the planets that revolve around the Sun. The radius of the atom is about 10-8 cm, and that of the nucleus is 10-13 cm, which indicates that matter is almost totally empty.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What are elementary particles?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Today we know that atoms are not indivisible, but are made up of subatomic particles, called elementary particles. These can be defined as physical entities simpler than the atomic nucleus, and it is considered that they are the last constituent of matter.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The three elementary particles that become part of the atom are: the electron, the proton and the neutron. The electron has a mass of 9.11 x 10-31 kg (approximately 1\/1800 of the mass of the hydrogen atom) and a negative charge of 1.602 x 10-19 C (this value is taken as a unit in nuclear physics); the proton has a mass of 1.673 x 10-27 kg (approximately the mass of the hydrogen atom) and a positive charge equal in absolute value to the charge of the electron; the neutron has a mass slightly less than that of the proton and has no electrical charge. Today it is known that the proton and the neutron are not essentially different, but that they are two states of the same particle called a nucleon, in such a way that a neutron can disintegrate into a proton plus an electron, without this meaning that the electron existed before. rather, it is formed at the moment of disintegration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Similarly, a proton can be transformed into a neutron for which it has to emit a positive electron (positron).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Another particle of great importance in nuclear physics is the neutrino, which, although it lacks mass and charge, has energy and momentum. The existence of the neutrino was deduced from theoretical considerations that made the existence of this particle necessary if certain subatomic processes were to comply with the laws of physics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The study of cosmic radiation, as well as the experiments carried out in particle accelerators, have made it possible to verify the existence of a much larger number of elementary particles, all of them of ephemeral life, that is, they disintegrate into other particles. ; these particles have received the names of muons, tauons, mesons, hyperons. The number of elementary particles discovered to date exceeds one hundred.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
It is also known that in addition to each particle there is the corresponding antiparticle, which has the same mass as it and the same charge but with the opposite sign. Thus, the antiproton is a particle with the same mass as the proton but whose charge is a unit negative; the antielectron (called a positron) is the same as a positively charged electron. Antiparticles have a very short life, since when they meet a particle they cancel each other out, releasing energy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What are isotopes?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
An atomic species is defined by two integers: the number of protons in the nucleus and the total number of protons plus neutrons. The first, called the atomic number, Z, defines the chemical element to which the atom belongs; that is, regardless of the number of neutrons they have, all atoms that have one proton are hydrogen atoms, all those with eight protons are oxygen atoms, etc. The second number, called the mass number. A is the nearest integer to the mass (expressed in atomic mass units) of the atom in question; that is, all atoms with A equal to 2 have a mass of approximately 2 mass units; those with A equal to 235 have a mass of about 235 atomic mass units.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
It happens that there are several atomic species or classes of atoms that have the same atomic number, but have different mass numbers. This means that, within each chemical element, there are several atomic species that differ in their atomic mass. These species of the same element are called isotopes, a name that alludes (isos: equal; topos: place) to the fact that these atoms occupy the same place in the periodic table of elements. For example, hydrogen has three isotopes: the isotope with A=1, called protium (which lacks neutrons); the isotope with A=2, called deuterium (which has 1 neutron); and the isotope with A=3, called tritium (which has 2 neutrons).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Are the nuclide and isotope equivalent concepts?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Nucleide is the generic name that applies to all atoms that have the same atomic number and the same mass number. Symbolically, each nuclide is represented by ZAM, where M is the symbol of the chemical element to which it belongs, and A and Z are its mass and atomic numbers, respectively.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Two nuclides that differ in mass number but have the same atomic number are \"species\" of the same chemical element. These two nuclides are said to be isotopes of that element. According to these definitions, nuclide refers to considering each species by itself, while the isotope concept implies a relation of comparison.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
However, in practice this subtle semantic distinction between the two words is often forgotten, and, although it is not rigorous, the use of isotope as a synonym for nuclide is commonplace, although not vice versa. In this work, and in order to follow usage, we will use isotope with both meanings: isotope \"strictu sensu\" and nuclide.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What is radioactivity?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Radioactivity was discovered by the French scientist, Antoine Henri Becquerel, in 1896. The discovery took place on an almost occasional basis: Becquerel was conducting research on the fluorescence of uranium-potassium double sulfate and discovered that uranium emitted spontaneously a mysterious radiation. This property of uranium - later it would be seen that there are other elements that possess it - of emitting radiation, without being previously excited, received the name of radioactivity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The discovery gave rise to a large number of investigations on the subject. Perhaps the most important in relation to the characterization of other radioactive substances were those carried out by the couple, also French, Pierre and Marie Curie, who discovered polonium and radium, both in 1898.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The nature of the emitted radiation and the phenomenon of radioactivity were studied in England by Ernest Rutherford, mainly, and by Frederick Soddy. As a result, it was soon learned that the emitted radiation could be of three different kinds, which were called alpha, beta and gamma, and that at the end of the process the original radioactive atom had been transformed into an atom of a different nature, that is, a transmutation of one atomic species into another had taken place. It is also said (and this is the current terminology) that the radioactive atom has undergone a disintegration.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Today we know that radioactivity is a nuclear reaction of \"spontaneous decomposition\"; that is, an unstable nuclide decomposes into another more stable than it, while emitting radiation. The daughter nuclide (the one that results from the decay) may not be stable, and so it decays into a third, which can continue the process, until finally a stable nuclide is reached. It is said that the successive nuclides of a set of decays form a radioactive series or radioactive family.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
All isotopes of elements with an atomic number equal to or greater than 84 are radioactive (polonium is the first of them), and today radioactive isotopes of elements whose natural isotopes are stable are obtained in the laboratory; It is called artificial radioactivity. The first obtaining in the laboratory of an artificial radioactive isotope (that is, the discovery of artificial radioactivity), was carried out, in 1934, by the couple formed by Fr\u00e9deric Joliot and Irene Curie, daughter of the Curies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What types of radioactive decay are there?<\/h3>\n\n\n
\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n
By studying the phenomenon of radioactivity, Rutherford discovered that the radiation emitted by radioactive decay could be of three kinds: alpha, beta, and gamma; In addition, the emission of neutrons must also be considered.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n
Alpha radiation (\u03b1) is formed by nuclei of the isotope 4 of helium, that is, it is constituted by a corpuscular radiation, in which each corpuscle is formed by two protons and two neutrons. This means that it has an atomic mass of 4 units and an electrical charge of 2 positive units. These protons and neutrons were once part of the nucleus that has disintegrated.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
Beta (\u03b2) radiation is made up of electrons, which means it is also corpuscular in nature, with each corpuscle having an atomic mass of about 1\/1800 and a charge of 1 negative unit. Unlike the previous case, the emerging electron did not previously exist in the nucleus, but rather comes from the transformation of a neutron into a proton, which remains inside the nucleus, and the electron, which is ejected.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Later, positive beta radiation was discovered, similar to beta but with a positive charge. It is made up of positrons from the transformation of a proton into a neutron.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n
Gamma (\u03b3) radiation is electromagnetic in nature, similar to ordinary light or X-radiation, but with a much shorter wavelength. It is, therefore, of a wave nature, devoid of rest mass and charge. This radiation did not exist before in the nucleus either, but is energy that is emitted as a consequence of an energetic readjustment of the nucleus.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
In spontaneous fission, as well as in induced fission and in other nuclear reactions, a radiation of neutrons is produced, formed by these particles, with a mass, therefore, of 1 atomic mass unit and without charge.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
The laws governing the different types of disintegration were discovered by Soddy and Fajans. These laws are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n
In alpha decay, since two protons and two neutrons are emitted, the daughter nuclide has two less protons than the parent, which means that it has moved back two places in the periodic table and its mass has decreased by four units.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
In negative beta decay, since a neutron is transformed into a proton, the daughter atom has one more proton than the father, which represents that it advances one place in the periodic system, and its atomic mass does not change.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
The gamma emission does not constitute a disintegration of its own, but rather occurs accompanying alpha or beta radiation, in decays of this type, or in the de-excitation of nuclides that were at a higher energy level than the normal one for that nuclide (nuclides excited).<\/li>\n\n\n\n
In the decay with emission of a neutron, the daughter nuclide is an isotope of the parent, but has a mass less than one unit.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
What law governs the process of radioactive decay?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The disintegration of a radioactive body is a statistical process; This means that if we consider a certain radioactive atom, we cannot know when its disintegration will take place, but if we take a very large number of atoms of the same nuclide, we can know the law that, on average, the group follows in its disintegration. .<\/p>\n\n\n\n
It is shown that the probability that a radioactive atom will decay remains constant over time. This means that when a radioactive substance disintegrates, the amount of it that has not disintegrated decreases exponentially over time. The half-life, T, is the time it takes for the amount of radioactive substance to be reduced by half. The value of T can vary from very small fractions of a second (short-lived isotopes) to millions of years (long-lived isotopes).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What is ionizing radiation?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The term radiation is used generically to designate electromagnetic energy or material particles that, from an emitting source, propagate in space. This propagation, in the absence of fields that influence the radiation, is rectilinear (in the form of \"rays\", to which the name alludes).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Certain radiations are capable of producing charged particles (ions) as they pass through matter, which is why they receive the generic name of ionizing radiation. In some cases, radiation is made up of charged particles that have enough kinetic energy to produce ions in their collision with the atoms in their path (they are called, for this reason, directly ionizing radiation); in other cases, the radiation is made up of uncharged particles that can give rise to the release of directly ionizing particles in matter, which is why they are called indirectly ionizing radiation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The main ionizing radiations are: alpha, beta and gamma radiation, X-rays and neutrons. Of these, the first two are directly ionizing radiation, and the others are indirectly ionizing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What are nuclear reactions?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
By analogy with chemical reactions, interactions between atomic nuclei or between atomic nuclei and elementary particles are called nuclear reactions; by extension, interactions between elementary particles are also included.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The first nuclear reaction carried out in the laboratory was carried out by Rutherford in 1919, bombarding the isotope 14 of nitrogen with alpha particles. The reaction produces oxygen isotope 17 and a proton. Symbolically, it is represented by the equation:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
714N + 24He\u2192817O+11H<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Just as in chemistry the spontaneous decomposition of an unstable molecule is considered to be the simplest chemical reaction (monomolecular reaction), radioactivity is the simplest type of nuclear reaction, and it is the one that was discovered first.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In the other types of nuclear reactions there are, in general, two nuclei or particles that react to give rise to reaction products. Similar to what happens in a chemical reaction, in order to produce a nuclear reaction it is normally necessary to provide the initial system with an activation energy. Energy is released in the reaction, which manifests itself in the form of kinetic energy of the reaction products, sometimes accompanied by the production of gamma radiation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
How is a nuclear reaction carried out?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
A nuclear reaction can be represented schematically in the form:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
a+X\u2192Y+b<\/p>\n\n\n\n
where X and Y are the initial and final nuclei, a is the particle used as a projectile, and b is the emerging particle. For the reaction to occur it is necessary that the a particle have sufficient energy to produce it. In the first nuclear reactions carried out in the laboratory, particles from radioactive decay were used as projectiles. Later, the so-called particle accelerators were built, where the necessary energy is obtained through the action of electric or magnetic fields.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A widely used criterion for classifying nuclear reactions is to define them on the basis of both incident and emerging particles, a and b. Thus, we speak of reactions (n, p) in which the incident particle is a neutron and the emerging one is a proton, etc.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
When accelerators did not yet exist, alpha radiation from radioactive disintegration was used as a projectile; Rutherford's work in the early decades of this century focused on such reactions. The construction of particle accelerators allowed the use of other charged projectiles, mainly protons. In 1934, the Italian physicist, Enrico Fermi, conceived the idea of using the neutron as a projectile and the group of researchers led by him systematically studied the reactions between neutrons and the various elements of the periodic table. In one of these reactions, the one that takes place between uranium-235 and the neutron, Otto Hahn discovered fission in the last days of 1938.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Among the most important types of nuclear reactions we must mention:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n
Dispersion: In them the particle is of the same nature as the projectile. Everything happens as if it had bounced off the target, although no one could be sure that the emerging particle is the same one that struck. When the total kinetic energy of the original products is equal to that of the final products of the reaction, it is said that it is an elastic dispersion. If, on the other hand, the total kinetic energy of the reaction products is less than the initial one, we will say that it is an inelastic dispersion. In this case, the difference between both energies is absorbed by the target, which remains excited.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
Capture: In this reaction the incident particle is absorbed by the target without any emerging particle being produced, with the exception of gamma photons.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
Fission: In this type of reaction, a heavy nucleus generally breaks into two fragments whose sizes are of the same order of magnitude, which is accompanied by an emission of neutrons and gamma radiation, with the release of a large amount of energy. Although there are cases of spontaneous fission or fission by capture of a photon, the reaction is usually produced by the capture of a neutron.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
Nuclear fusion: It is a reaction between two nuclei of light atoms in which a nucleus of a heavier atom is produced, together with the release of elementary particles and a large amount of energy.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
The energy released in the Sun and in stars comes from nuclear fusion reactions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What is a nuclear fission chain reaction?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Nuclear fission is a reaction that occurs by bombarding certain nuclides with neutrons, called fissile nuclides. In fission it happens that when the white nucleus breaks, several neutrons are released with an energy equal to or greater than that of the incident neutrons, which allows the neutrons produced to give rise to new fissions, and those released in them to new ones, etc. . With this it can be achieved that, once the reaction has started, it is not necessary to continue with the bombardment of external neutrons, but rather the reaction is maintained by itself.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
When, once a reaction has started, it is capable of maintaining itself, it is said to be a chain reaction. By this definition, a chain nuclear fission reaction is a process of successive nuclear fission in which all or part of the neutrons released in each fission cause new fission, and so on.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
To know under what conditions the nuclear fission chain reaction can take place, it is necessary to study the vicissitudes that follow the neutrons produced in the fission. If we imagine a neutron reacting with a uranium 235 nucleus, it will lead to its fission, a process in which an average of 2.5 neutrons are released. A part of the neutrons produced will give rise to new fissions; another part will be absorbed by nuclei of other elements present in the system, without giving rise to fissions; a last part will escape to the outside. Without causing new fissions either. If the number of neutrons in the first group is equal to unity, a self-sustaining reaction will have been obtained with a constant number of fissions per unit of time, since each neutron that initially produced a fission will give rise to another useful neutron to continue the process. . It is said, then, that the system forms a critical set. If the number of useful neutrons to produce new fissions were greater than unity, the number of fissions per unit of time would increase and we would have a hypercritical ensemble. If, on the contrary, it were less than unity, the reaction would decrease with time and would end up stopping; the set is called subcritical.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
A set will be critical, hypercritical or subcritical depending on the relative proportion of neutrons in each of the three groups, which is a function of the concentration of U-235 atoms in the medium, the concentration and nature of the remaining nuclides present. , and the relationship between volume and surface area of the medium where the reaction takes place.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Where does the practical interest of fission lie?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The fact that fission can give rise to a nuclear fission chain reaction allows it to maintain itself once it has started, which means that steady state energy production can be obtained. The practical consequence is that fission is a nuclear reaction that can serve as a source of energy to meet the energy needs of society. This is similar, in a nuclear process, to what happens with chemical combustion reactions, which also serve as sources of energy because once the combustion of coal or oil begins, the reaction maintains itself without the need for any foreign action.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What is meant by nuclear fuel?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Nuclear fuel is called any material that contains fissile nuclides and can be used in a reactor for a nuclear chain reaction to develop in it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
According to this, uranium is a nuclear fuel, as is uranium oxide. In the first case, we refer to a chemical element, one of whose isotopes is fissile; in the second, to a certain chemical compound that contains such isotopes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<\/figure>\n\n\n\n
We understand by fissile isotopes those nuclides capable of undergoing fission. It is necessary to specify the energy of the neutrons that can fission said isotope; For example, U-238 is not fissionable by thermal neutrons, but by fast neutrons, although with a small effective section. Normally, and unless greater precision is made, a fissile isotope is usually understood as any nuclide that fissions both by the action of thermal and fast neutrons.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The only fissile isotope that exists in nature is uranium-235. It is found in a proportion of 0.711% in natural uranium.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
There are other fissile isotopes that do not exist in nature but can be obtained artificially. The main ones are:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n
Uranium-233. It is obtained by capturing a neutron by a thorium-232 nucleus. The intermediate nucleus formed undergoes two beta decays, giving rise to the aforementioned U-233.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
Plutonium-239. Although traces of it have been detected, it is considered not to be a natural isotope. It is formed in the capture of a neutron by a nucleus of U-238, followed by two beta emissions.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
Less important than the previous ones is plutonium-241. It is formed by the capture of a neutron in Pu-240, which in turn comes from the capture of a neutron by a Pu-239 nucleus.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
What is meant by fertile material?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
There are certain nuclides of high atomic weight elements that react with neutrons, capturing them and then emitting beta particles, with the circumstance that the final nuclide is fissionable.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Said initial nuclides, which cannot be fissile with thermal neutrons, are of great practical interest, since if they are introduced into a nuclear reactor they serve as raw material for obtaining nuclear fuel. They are called fertile nuclides and the material that contains them is called fertile material.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Thorium-232 and uranium-238 are the two most important fertile isotopes. Therefore, thorium and depleted natural uranium are the two fertile materials of greatest technical interest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Where does the practical interest of nuclear fusion lie?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
The practical interest of nuclear fusion lies in the amount of energy obtained and the abundance of atomic elements used, which gives it the character of inexhaustible energy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In nuclear fusion reactions light atomic elements are used, generally hydrogen and its isotopes: deuterium and tritium. Deuterium abounds in seawater at a ratio of one atom for every 6,500 hydrogen. As, moreover, three quarters of the Earth are covered by water, it can be said that the reserves are inexhaustible. Tritium, although it is scarce in nature, can be generated by nuclear reactions with neutrons and with the two isotopes of lithium, material, on the other hand, abundant in the earth's crust (20 ppm) and in seawater (0. 17ppm).<\/p>\n\n\n\n
From the energetic point of view, by the fusion of the deuterium contained in a liter of water, an energy equivalent to that produced in the combustion of 300 liters of gasoline is obtained.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
What is the current status of nuclear fusion research?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Nuclear fusion is in such a stage of development that to date its technological feasibility has not been demonstrated. That is, the energy expended to produce the fusion reactions has not been fully recovered.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
To demonstrate this technological feasibility, or energy gain equal to unity, two lines of work have been developed: magnetic and inertial confinement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In magnetic confinement fusion, magnetic fields are used to cause plasma particles to accelerate along paths around magnetic field lines, so they can react more easily. There are currently four machines that work under the Tokamak concept: Euratom JET; TFTR from Princeton (USA), T-20 from Russia and JT-60 from Japan. The most notable results achieved so far were achieved in the JET, in November 1991, by obtaining a power of 1.7 MW; later, in 1993, the TFTR reached 6 MW reaching temperatures of 30 million \u00b0C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
The most advanced magnetic confinement project is the ITER (International Thermonuclear Engineering Reactor), a prototype based on the Tokamak concept, and in which it is expected to achieve an energy gain greater than unity. The site of Cadarache (France) has been chosen to be the headquarters of the ITER project.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In inertial confinement fusion, a laser or particle beam is used to supply the energy necessary for the fusion of small particles of deuterium and tritium. Lasers having an energy of several tens of kilojoules are now available. Specifically, the most important are: NOVA (40 kJ) from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (United States), GEKKO-XII (10 kJ), from Osaka University (Japan), OMEGA (30 kJ) from the University from Rochester (United States), PHEBUS (3 kJ) from France and VOLCAN from the United Kingdom. In order to achieve technological feasibility, it will be necessary to increase its energy by a factor of 10. In this sense, the design and construction of an installation has begun at the aforementioned Livermore laboratory: NIF (National Ignition Facility) with an energy between 1.8 and 2.2 MJ. At the same time, France is carrying out a similar project: the Megajoule Laser, which with an energy between 1.8 and 3.2 MJ will be installed in Bordeaux.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
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